Conversion

* Conversion: this process is also known as zero-derivation.

This process changes the part of speech and meaning of an existing root without producing any change in pronunciation or spelling and without adding any affix.

* Process where by an item is adopted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix.

Conversion to noun:

de- verbal:'state' love, want, desire

'event/activity' laugh, fall, search

'object of V' answer, find

De-adjectival: there is no very productive pattern of adjective-noun conversion.

Examples:

I'd like two pints of bitter [=type of beer].

They're running in the final [=final race].

Conversion to verb:

De- nominal:'to put in/on N' bottle, garage

'to give N','to provide with N' coat, mask, oil, plaster

'to send/go by N' mail, telegraph, bicycle, boat

De-adjectival: (transitive verbs) 'to make adj'

or 'to make more adj' calm, dry, dirty

(intransitive verbs) 'to become adj' empty, narrow, yellow

Conversion to adjective:

De- nominal: a brick garage ~ the garage is brick

reproduction furniture ~ this furniture is reproduction
p>Types of Conversion

* From Verb to Noun

to attack à attack

to hope à hope

to cover à cover

* From Noun to Verb

comb à to comb

sand à to sand

party à to party

* From Name to Verb

Harpo à to Harpo

Houdini à to Houdini

* From Adjective to Verb

dirty à to dirty

slow à to slow

* From Preposition to Verb

out à to out

In some cases, conversion is accompanied by a change in the stress pattern known as stress shift.

transpórt (V) à tránsport (N)

rewríte (V) à réwrite (N)

condúct (V) à cónduct (N)

subjéct (V) à súbject (N)

Examples:

I need someone to come to the blackboard.

Is there a volunteer?

Someone has to volunteer.

Otherwise, I will volunteer someone.

Reference:

http://qiru.blogspot.co.id/2012/12/morphology-conversion.html

Proverb and idiom

An idiom is a phrase that has a meaning of its own that cannot be understood from the meanings of its individual words.

Here are some examples of idioms:

to be fed up with means to be tired and annoyed with something that has been happening for too long

to rub someone the wrong way means to irritate someone

by the skin of your teeth means that something was successful, but only just barely. “She passed the test by the skin of her teeth” means she almost didn’t pass.

A proverb is a short popular saying that gives advice about how people should behave or that expresses a belief that is generally thought to be true.

Here are some examples:

Don’t cry over spilled milk.

Those who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.

A stitch in time saves nine.

Like idioms, proverbs often have a meaning that is greater than the meaning of the individual words put together, but in a different way than idioms.

The literal meaning of an idiom usually doesn’t make sense, and idioms can be almost impossible to understand unless you have learned or heard them before.

The literal meaning of a proverb such as “Don’t cry over spilled milk” does makes sense on its own, but it’s not until you apply this meaning to a broader set of situations that you understand the real point of the proverb.

For example, “Don’t cry over spilled milk” means “Don’t get upset over something that has already been done.

It’s too late to worry about it now, just get on with your life.

References:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EpRjtiisJ5M

http://www.learnersdictionary.com/qa/what-s-the-difference-between-idioms-and-proverbs

Homonym,homophones and homographs

HOMONYMS HOMOPHONES HOMOGRAPHS

Homonyms, or multiple meaning words, are words that share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings. For example, bear.

A bear (the animal) can bear (tolerate) very cold temperatures.

The driver turned left (opposite of right) and left (departed from) the main road.

Homophones, also known as sound alike words, are words that are pronounced identically although they have different spellings and meanings.

These words are a very common source of confusion when writing.

Common examples of sets of homophones include: to, too, and two; they're and their; bee and be; sun and son; which and witch; and plain and plane.

Vocabulary Spelling City is a particularly useful tool for learning to correctly use and spell the sound alike words.

Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings and different pronunciations.

Some examples of homographs are:

bass as in fish vs bass as in music,

bow as in arrow vs bow as in bending or taking a bow at the end of a performance,

close as in next to vs close as in shut the door,

desert as in dry climate vs desert as in leaving alone.

Currently, Vocabulary Spelling City cannot distinguish between homographs, as we are unable to have two pronunciations for the exact same word.

We are looking for possibilities in the future.

A HOMONYM IS ONE OF A GROUP OF WORDS THAT SHARE THE SAME SPELLING AND THE SAME PRONUNCIATION BUT HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS.

THIS USUALLY HAPPENS AS A RESULT OF THE TWO WORDS HAVING DIFFERENT ORIGINS.

THE STATE OF BEING A HOMONYM IS CALLED HOMONYMY.

A HOMOPHONE IS A WORD THAT IS PRONOUNCED THE SAME AS ANOTHER WORD BUT DIFFERS IN MEANING.

THE WORDS MAY BE SPELLED THE SAME, SUCH AS ROSE (FLOWER) AND ROSE (PAST TENSE OF "RISE"), OR DIFFERENTLY, SUCH AS CARAT, CARET, AND CARROT, OR TO, TWO AND TOO.

ALL HOMONYMS ARE HOMOPHONES BECAUSE THEY SOUND THE SAME. HOWEVER, NOT ALL HOMOPHONES ARE HOMONYMS.

HOMOPHONES WITH DIFFERENT SPELLINGS ARE NOT HOMONYMS.

* "ADVOCATE" CAN BE PRONOUNCED WITH A LONG "A" SOUND AND MEAN “TO SPEAK OR WRITE IN SUPPORT OF”

* "ADVOCATE" CAMN ALSO BE PRONOUNCED WITH A SHORT "A" SOUND AND REFER TO A PERSON WHO SUPPORTS OR PLEADS THE CAUSE OF ANOTHER.

HOMOGRAPH - “GRAPH” HAS TO DO WITH WRITING OR DRAWING.

WHEN YOU THINK ABOUT A GRAPH, YOU ENVISION A PICTURE.

IF YOU READ GRAPHIC NOVELS, YOU KNOW THEY HAVE PICTURES.

SOMEONE DREW THEM. SO “HOMOGRAPH” MEANS “SAME PICTURE” OR “SAME WRITING.”

HOMOGRAPHS ARE WRITTEN (SPELLED) THE SAME.

HOMOPHONE - “PHONE” HAS TO DO WITH SOUND. WHEN YOU TALK ON THE TELEPHONE, YOU HEAR THE OTHER PERSON’S VOICE.

WHEN PEOPLE IN THE 1800S USED A GRAMOPHONE, THEY WERE LISTENING TO MUSIC.

AND PHONOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF A LANGUAGE’S SOUNDS.

SO “HOMOPHONE” MEANS “SAME SOUND.”

HOMOPHONES ARE PRONOUNCED THE SAME.

HOMONYM - “NYM” MEANS “NAME.”

STEVIE NICKS AND STEVIE WONDER HAVE THE SAME FIRST NAME, BUT THEY CLEARLY ARE DIFFERENT PEOPLE.

IT’S THE SAME WITH HOMONYMS.

THEY’RE SPELLED THE SAME (HOMOGRAPHS) AND PRONOUNCED THE SAME (HOMOPHONES), BUT THEY HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS.

“BOW,” FOR EXAMPLE, MEANS BOTH “TO BEND AT THE WAIST” AND “THE FRONT OF A BOAT.”

Reference:

http://conceptsinsemantics.weebly.com/homograph-homonymy-homophones.html

Polysemy

I. Polysemy

Polysemy is the existence of several meanings for a single word or phrase.

The word polysemy comes from the Greek words πολυ-, poly-, “many” and σήμα, sêma, “sign”.

In other words it is the capacity for a word, phrase, or sign to have multiple meanings i.e., a large semantic field.

Polysemy is a pivotal concept within the humanities, such as media studies and linguistics.

A word like walk is polysemous:

1. I went walking this morning

2. We went for a walk last Sunday

3. Do you walk the dog every day?

4. I live near Meadow Walk Drive

5. The wardrobe is too heavy to lift; we’ll have to walk it into the bedroom (move a large object by rocking).

6. She walks the tower (to haunt a place as a ghost).

7. The workers threatened to walk (to go on strike).

8. Walk with God! (to live your life in a particular way)

Reference

http://www.afv.gr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=161:polysemy-a-homonymy&catid=121:miscellaneous&Itemid=352

Antonomasia

Onomatopoeia

Bam! Beep! Zoom! Buzz! Bang! It is a delight to study Onomatopoeia which defines words that imitate the regular sound related to an act or entity.

Onomatopoeia is funny sounding words that are easily picked up by students.

Students may use these words which sound like the very thing being named or written about. The pronunciation to the actual sound represented is very close to the sound depicted.

'Slap,' for example, not only means the sound that is made by hitting skin, but also the action of hitting someone on the face with a hand, similarly 'twitter' is more than just the sound birds make.

What is Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is defined as a word, a poetic arrangement of words to convey how something sounds. It imitates the natural sounds of an action involved. When an action is named by replicating the sound related with it, is known as onomatopoeia. An example of onomatopoeia would be, “Cock-a-doodle-do, crowed the rooster.” Onomatopoeia is the creation of a word from a sound allied with what is named. For example, onomatopoeia is the pop of a balloon, the tweet of a bird, the whispering of the forest trees, or hum of a thousand bees.Onomatopoeia gives a rhetorical effect to words used.

Examples:

•'Rustle' is the action of somebody moving papers around and causing them to brush together but it also indicates the, sound of papers brushing together, thus making this noise. •'Whisper' not only signifies the sound of people talking quietly, but also defines the action of people talking softly.

Examples of Onomatopoeia

The following examples have been clustered according to their use.

Words Related to the Voice – Sounds that come from behind the throat starts with a gr- sound however sounds that originate from the mouth over the lips, teeth and tongue tend to begin with mu-.

Example:

growl	belch	chatter	mumble	grunt
blurt	giggle	bawl	gurgle	murmur

Words related to Water – Words related to water usually begin with sp- or dr-. Words that specify a lesser sum of liquid often end in -le such as sprinkle/drizzle.

Example:

growl	belch	chatter	mumble	grunt
blurt	giggle	bawl	gurgle	murmur

Words Related to Air – they describe the sounds of air gusting through things or of things rushing and blowing through the air.

Example:

fwoosh	flutter	swoosh	whoosh	whisper	whip
fisst	gasp	swish	whiff	whizz	puff

Animals Sounds – Animals speak a different language too, depending on where the chicken is from for instance, she might bok-bok, cluck-cluck, kot-kot, tok-tok, or cotcotcodet.

Example:

baa	chirp	meow	chortle	cluck	bow-wow
oink	buzz	tweet	cheep	hiss	moo
purr	ribbit	bray	quack	bark	neigh
cuckoo	warble	cock-a-diddle-doo	woof	yap	roar
growl	snarl	chirp	squeak	howl	twitter
chirp	hoot	hum	gibber	hee-haw	trumpet

Words Related to Collisions – can occur between two or more objects.

Sounds that begin with cl- frequently indicate collisions between metal, steel, crystal or glass objects, words that end in -ng are sounds that resonate.

Words that begin with th- generally define dull sounds like soft but heavy things hitting wood or earth.

Example:

bam	clink	jingle	ding	bang
whomp	clang	clap	clank	thud
clatter	boom	thump	wham	click
slap	smack	crash	slam	screech

Miscellaneous Examples – Onomatopoeia can be found in literature, prose, poetry, songs, jingles and advertisements.

Consider the following examples of onomatopoeia:

bing	mutter	rattle	ping	boom	creak	rip
rush	beep	creak	fizz	throb	sip	honk
purr	bash	eeeyouch	ahem	crackle	sloshes	pop
shriek	awww	knock	yelp	woo-hoo	sneer	Huh
slobber	pong	achoo	phwew	snort	Ah-ooh-ga	ding
moan	sizzle	rat-a-tat	achoo	yawn	cough	vroom
drum	dong	click	hiccup	cricket	gobble	zoom

>Benefits of using Onomatopoeia

Learning Onomatopoeia allows students to discover within themselves the enjoyment they can achieve as they learn the subject.

It helps a child to think creatively and become more knowledgeable.

Mentioned below are few benefits of using Onomatopoeia:

1. Sound words will be read with the objects related.

2. Students use their imaginings and imitate sounds for things.

3. The will be melodically prone with sounds words and use them to sing songs.

4. They will improve their Listening skills and attentively hear indoor and outdoor sounds.

5. Students will take part and use musical sounds in poems.

6. It helps students define sound on their own and list quite a few objects that make sounds.

7. Helps students to be imaginative, unique and creative.

8. Students will become familiar with the vocal organs, the vocal and produce speech sounds. Reference http://english.tutorvista.com/literary-response/onomatopoeia.html

Metonymy and synecdoche

Metonymy – is a RELATED object Synecdoche is a PART of the SAME object

My mommy is related to me (metonymy), but my sin is a part of me (synecdoche).

My neck is a part of me, but Tony and I are only related.

Synecdoche: using a part of something to represent a whole

Example: All hands on deck.

Metonymy: refer to something closely related to the object, instead of saying the actual subject

Example: The White House answered its critics.

Examples of Metonymy

This statement includes two examples of metonymy:

“The pen is mightier than the sword.” In the oft-quoted phrase, "the pen" refers to the the written word, which, according to the statement, is a more effective and powerful instrument of change than "the sword," which represents military or physical force. When students say they study “Shakespeare,” they generally do not refer to a study of the man himself, but of his literary works. When we use the term “the press,” we are referring to journalists, not to the actual printing press that produces their work. Part of a Whole All poodles are dogs, but not all dogs are poodles. All synecdoche is metonymy, but not vice versa. Synecdoche is a special form of metonymy in which the object or idea used to describe something larger is actually a part or a component of the larger idea. This device may also be used when a smaller group is used to reference a larger group with which it is a part. “Hollywood” refers to the entire American movie making industry, not the suburb that was named “Hollywood.”

Examples of Synecdoche:

“I got a new set of wheels” usually means, “I bought a new car,” of which wheels are a part.

“Boots” can refer to “soldiers,” and “sails” to an entire ship. A specific brand of a product often comes to be used to describe a larger category.

“Coke” is sometimes used to describe all colas,

“Band-Aid” to describe any small adhesive bandage, and "Kleenex” to refer to any facial tissue. In "The Face that Launched a Thousand Ships," poet Christopher Marlowe writes, "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships, / And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?" The entire Greek military is represented by a part, "a thousand ships," while "the towers" represent the entire city and culture of Troy, and Helen's "face" is a part of her body that refers to her physical beauty as a whole.

References:

http://slideplayer.com/slide/8495783/

http://classroom.synonym.com/examples-metonymy-synecdoche-22055.html

metonymy

Etymology

From the Greek, "change of name"

Another examples are :

Crown - in place of a royal person

The White House - in place of the President or others who work there

Ears - for giving attention ("Lend me your ears!" from Mark Antony in Julius Caesar)

Pen - for the written word

Sword - for military might

Silver fox - for an attractive older man

Purpose of a Metonymy

As with other literary devices, one of the main purposes of using a metonymy is to add flavor to the writing.

Using a metonymy serves a double purpose - it breaks up any awkwardness of repeating the same phrase over and over and it changes the wording to make the sentence more interesting.

Difference Between Metonymy and Synecdoche

Definition

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which something is introduced by a new name that is related to the original thing or concept.

Synecdoche is a figure of speech where a word or phrase that refers to a part of something is used to represent the whole or vice versa.

New Term

Metonymy uses a related name or concept.

Synecdoche uses a part to represent the whole or vice versa.

Examples

Metonymy examples mostly include proper nouns.

Synecdoche examples often include common nouns, especially body parts.

Reference :

http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-metonymy.html

http://pediaa.com/difference-between-metonymy-and-synecdoche/

Hyperbole

An exaggeration of ideas for emphasis or effect of an overgenerous statement for amusement is called Hyperbole. Hyperbole has amusing effects created by an overstatement to induce strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken accurately. In short, Hyperbole's are exaggerations to create highlighting or effect. Hyperbole's can be used to better express an author’s intentions and meaning when used in a proper context. Often, Hyperbole is identified by trigger words such as "most," "best," or "worst."

Examples of hyperbole are:

Her brain is the size of a pea.

I could sleep for a year; I was so tired.

I am dying of shame.

My grandmother is as old as the dinosaurs.

I've told you a million times to complete daily homework’s.

I can smell death by chocolate ice cream from a mile away.

Functions of Hyperbole

Hyperbole, like other figures of speech, is used to connect ideas, thoughts, emotions, and images in a more effectual way than through plain language.

Hyperbole's can often be combined successfully with similes and metaphors to surge their effectiveness, although common phrases must not be repeatedly used to avoid being in a cliche.

Information, emotion, or statements are exaggerated intentionally for an assured effect.

The exaggeration serves to accentuate a specific point.

In prose, hyperbole is used for the purpose of importance or for humor.

To describe an action that is significant in some way.

Hyperbole can be used in descriptions to highlight some prominent features of a character.

To place emphasis on a particular act, feeling, or feature and not taken literally.

Homer’s epic poems “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey” are prime examples of the use of hyperbole in poetry.

Reference: http://english.tutorvista.com/literary-response/hyperbole.html

Another examples are:

The word “bread” can be used to represent food in general or money (e.g. he is the breadwinner; music is my bread and butter).

The word “sails” is often used to refer to a whole ship.

The phrase "hired hands" can be used to refer to workmen.

The word "head" refers to cattle.

The word "wheels" refers to a vehicle.

References:

http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-synecdoche.html

http://theyuniversity.tumblr.com/post/109626548932/whats-up-with-metonymy-and-synecdoche

Acronymy and blending

Major word formation

Collocation

What is a collocation?

A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just sound "right" to native English speakers, who use them all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may be unnatural and just sound "wrong". Look at these examples:

Natural English	Unnatural English
the fast train	the quick train
fast food	quick food
a quick shower	a fast shower
a quick meal	a fast meal

Sample Collocations

There are several different types of collocation. Collocations can be adjective + adverb, noun + noun, verb + noun and so on. Below you can see seven main types of collocation in sample sentences.

1. adverb + adjective

Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do.

-We entered a richly decorated room.

-Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?

2. adjective + noun

-The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.

-The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.

-He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.

3. noun + noun

-Let's give Mr Jones a round of applause. -The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am. I'd like to buy two bars of soap please. -

4. noun + verb

-The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.

-Snow was falling as our plane took off.

-The bomb went off when he started the car engine.

5. verb + noun

-The prisoner was hanged for committing murder.

-I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed.

-He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.

6. verb + expression with preposition

-We had to return home because we had run out of money.

-At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears.

-Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.

7. verb + adverb

-She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down.

-Mary whispered softly in John's ear.

-I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.

have	do	make
have a bath have a drink have a good time have a haircut have a holiday have a problem have a relationship have a rest have lunch have sympathy	do business do nothing do someone a favour do the cooking do the housework do the shopping do the washing up do your best do your hair do your homework	make a difference make a mess make a mistake make a noise make an effort make furniture make money make progress make room make trouble
take	break	catch
take a break take a chance take a look take a rest take a seat take a taxi take an exam take notes take someone's place take someone's temperature	break a habit break a leg break a promise break a record break a window break someone's heart break the ice break the law break the news to someone break the rules	catch a ball catch a bus catch a chill catch a cold catch a thief catch fire catch sight of catch someone's attention catch someone's eye catch the flu
pay	save	keep
pay a fine pay attention pay by credit card pay cash pay interest pay someone a compliment pay someone a visit pay the bill pay the price pay your respects	save electricity save energy save money save one's strength save someone a seat save someone's life save something to a disk save space save time save yourself the trouble	keep a diary keep a promise keep a secret keep an appointment keep calm keep control keep in touch keep quiet keep someone's place keep the change

 

come	go	get
come close come complete with come direct come early come first come into view come last come late come on time come prepared come right back come second come to a compromise come to a decision come to an agreement come to an end come to a standstill come to terms with come to a total of come under attack	go abroad go astray go bad go bald go bankrupt go blind go crazy go dark go deaf go fishing go mad go missing go on foot go online go out of business go overseas go quiet go sailing go to war go yellow	get a job get a shock get angry get divorced get drunk get frightened get home get lost get married get nowhere get permission get pregnant get ready get started get the impression get the message get the sack get upset get wet get worried

Miscellaneous collocations

Time	Business English	Classifiers
bang on time dead on time early 12th century free time from dawn till dusk great deal of time late 20th century make time for next few days past few weeks right on time run out of time save time spare time spend some time take your time tell someone the time time goes by time passes waste time	annual turnover bear in mind break off negotiations cease trading chair a meeting close a deal close a meeting come to the point dismiss an offer draw a conclusion draw your attention to launch a new product lay off staff go bankrupt go into partnership make a loss make a profit market forces sales figures take on staff	a ball of string a bar of chocolate a bottle of water a bunch of carrots a cube of sugar a pack of cards a pad of paper

https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collocations-lists.htm

Affixation

Affixation is the process where a bound morpheme is attached to a free morpheme in various syntactic positions – pre, intra (within) and post positions – also known as initial, medial and final position, giving the “root + affix” combination.

Katamba ( 1993 : 44 ) says, “ an affix ia a mopheme which only accurs when attached to some other morphemes or morphemes such as a root or stem or base. “

There are two basic kinds of morphology:

1. Derivation is an affix used to change form and meaning from lexical point with a change in part of speech.

Examples :

Universe(noun) Universal (adjective)

Protect ( verb) Protective (adjective)

Derivational affix can in the form of suffix and prefix. While inflectional only in prefix.

- Derivational suffix

Examples:

Suffix	Derivational suffix	Root + derivational suffix
Noun Suffixes	-acy, -age, -al, -an, -ian, -ance, -ancy, -ant, -ary, -ate, -ation, -dom, -er, -ess, -ful, -hood, -ing, -ive, -ment, -ness, -or, -ory, -ship, -th, -y	happy (adjective: bahagia) + -ness = happiness (noun: kebahagiaan)
		king (noun: raja) + -dom =kingdom (noun: kerajaan)
Verb Suffixes	-ate, -en, -er, -ify, -ize	active (adjective: aktif) + -ate = activate (verb: mengaktifkan)
		wide (adjective: lebar) + -en = widen (verb: memperluas)
Adjective Suffixes	-able, -al, -ant, -ary, -ate, -ed, -en, -ful, -ic, -ile, -ing, -ish, -istic, -ive, -less, -like, -ly, -ous, -ward, -wide, -y	play (verb: bermain) + -ful =playful (adjective: suka bermain)
		friend (noun: teman) + -ly =friendly (adjective: ramah)
Adverb Suffixes	-ever, -fold, -ily, -ly, -place, -ward, -where, -wise	clear (adjective: jelas) + -ly =clearly (adverb: dengan jelas)
		clock (noun: jam) + -wise =clockwise (adverb: searah jarum jam)

- Derivational prefix,

Examples :

ex + wife (noun) = ex-wife (noun)

re + call (verb) = recall (verb)

2.Inflectional is an affix used to change form and function only from the grammatical point with no change in part of speech of the word.

Inflectional affix :

a. Third person singular ( -S), example : she walks

b. Past tense (- ed), example : he jumped

c. Present proggresive (- ing), example : she is talking to a stranger

d. Past participle ( -en), example : He has eaten

e. Plural (-S), example : I have two cats

f. Possesive (-‘s), example : Cat’s eye

g. Comparative (-er), example :They speak louder

h. Superlative ( -est), example : Robby is the tallest in his class.

Prefix

Katamba ( 1993 : 44 ) says, “ a prefix is an affix attached before a root or stem or base like re- , un- , and in- “ . Based on this definition, it may be said that a prefix is an affix which is attached to the beginning of base form.

Examples:

re- + write => rewrite ‘ to write something again ‘

mis- + understand => misunderstand ‘ to interpret words, instruction, motives etc wrongly ‘

dis- + agree => disagree ‘ to have different opinion ‘

Suffix

Katamba ( 1993 : 44 ) says “ a suffix is an an affix attached after a root or stem or base like –ly, -er , -ist ,-s , ing, and –ed “. From this definition, it may be said that a suffix is an affix which is added to the end of base form.

Examples:

beauty + -ify => beautify ‘ to make something beautiful ‘

national + -ize => nationalize ‘ to transfer something from private ownership to ownership by the state ‘

dark + -en => darken ‘ to become dark, to cause something to become dark ‘

Infix

Katamba ( 1993 : 44 ) says, “ an affix inserted into the root itself “ in relation to this definition, it is understood that an infix is inserted into a base word. Infixes are not a feature in English.

Confix

Arifn ( 1978 : 23 ) says , “ a confix is an affix attached in front of and at the end of base form.

Examples:

im- - ity + mortal => immortality ‘ the state of being immortal ‘

dis- -ment + agree => disagreement ‘ lack of agreement, a difference of Opinion ‘

il- -ity + legal => illegality ‘ the state of being illegal ‘

Superfixes are affixes that are added from above in the form of sound quality which is called stress. A change of stress may change the form class of the words, such as from a noun to a verb.

Some examples are:

Noun Verb `

permit per`mit `

transfer trans`fer

`record re`cord `

project pro` ject

`progress pro`gress

`import im`port

Reference

Baskaran, Loga.2005. A Linguistic Primer Malaysians. Kuala Lumpur :University Malaya Press

www.repository USU `